Cervical cancer causes are primarily related to a specific virus. Cervical cancer or cervical cancer signs symptoms usually evolve very slowly. Over a period of several years, cells on the surface of the cervix change from normal to abnormal.
As for cervical cancer causes, at least 95% or 9 out of every 10 cases of cervical cancer are linked to the human papilloma virus (HPV), which is a sexually transmitted infection.
Symptoms of HPV very often have no cervical cancer signs symptoms. Warts can appear after weeks or even years after sexual contact with anyone with HPV. These growths very often stay flat and invisible.
The Pap Smear is defined as a test for cancerous or precancerous cells of the cervix. HPV can be detected through an annual pap smear test. While pap smear tests are necessary because they are the best screening technique currently available, they are not always accurate in detecting a cervical signs symptoms. A newer testing method is being developed that uses a small fiber optic probe that may replace pap smears. This new method is still being tested and it should give women more accurate screening, eliminate unnecessary biopsies and find cervical cancer signs symptoms at its early stages. Research is ongoing to possibly find an HPV vaccine for men and women. Ask your doctor if any newer, more accurate tests are now available in his or her practice.
What are the early symptoms of cervical cancer ?
Treatment of cervical cancer
Staging
If the screening test shows that you have cancer, your doctor will do a thorough pelvic exam and may remove additional tissue to learn the extent (stage) of your disease. The stage tells whether the tumor has invaded nearby tissues, whether the cancer has spread and, if so, to what parts of the body.
These are the stages of cervical cancer :
- Stage 0: The cancer is found only in the top layer of cells in the tissue that lines the cervix. Stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ.
- Stage I: The cancer has invaded the cervix beneath the top layer of cells. It is found only in the cervix.
- Stage II: The cancer extends beyond the cervix into nearby tissues. It extends to the upper part of the vagina. The cancer does not invade the lower third of the vagina or the pelvic wall (the lining of the part of the body between the hips).
- Stage III: The cancer extends to the lower part of the vagina. It also may have spread to the pelvic wall and nearby lymph nodes.
- Stage IV: The cancer has spread to the bladder, rectum, or other parts of the body.
- Recurrent cancer: The cancer was treated, but has returned after a period of time during which it could not be detected. The cancer may show up again in the cervix or in other parts of the body.
To learn the extent of disease and suggest a course of treatment, the doctor may order some of the following tests :
- Chest x-rays: X-rays often can show whether cancer has spread to the lungs.
- CT scan: An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes a series of detailed pictures of your organs. You may receive contrast material by injection in your arm or hand, by mouth, or by enema. (Some people are allergic to contrast materials that contain iodine. Tell your doctor or nurse if you have allergies.) The contrast material makes abnormal areas easier to see. A tumor in the liver, lungs, or elsewhere in the body can show up on the CT scan.
- MRI: A powerful magnet linked to a computer is used to make detailed pictures of your pelvis and abdomen. The doctor can view these pictures on a monitor and can print them on film. An MRI can show whether cancer has spread. Sometimes contrast material makes abnormal areas show up more clearly on the picture.
- Ultrasound: An ultrasound device is held against the abdomen or inserted into the vagina. The device sends out sound waves that people cannot hear. The waves bounce off the cervix and nearby tissues, and a computer uses the echoes to create a picture. Tumors may produce echoes that are different from the echoes made by healthy tissues. The picture can show whether cancer has spread.
Treatment
Many women with cervical cancer want to take an active part in making decisions about their medical care. It is natural to want to learn all you can about your disease and your treatment choices. However, shock and stress after the diagnosis can make it hard to think of everything you want to ask the doctor. It often helps to make a list of questions before an appointment.
To help remember what the doctor says, you may take notes or ask whether you may use a tape recorder. You may also want to have a family member or friend with you when you talk to the doctor—to take part in the discussion, to take notes, or just to listen.
You do not need to ask all your questions at once. You will have other chances to ask your doctor to explain things that are not clear and to ask for more information.
Your doctor may refer you to a specialist, or you may ask for a referral. Gynecologists, gynecologic oncologists, medical oncologists, and radiation oncologists are specialists who treat cervical cancer.
Getting a second opinion
Before starting treatment, you might want a second opinion about the diagnosis and treatment plan. Many insurance companies cover a second opinion if you or your doctor requests it. It may take some time and effort to gather medical records and arrange to see another doctor. Usually it is not a problem to take several weeks to get a second opinion. In most cases, the delay in starting treatment will not make treatment less effective. To make sure, you should discuss this delay with your doctor. Some women with cervical cancer need treatment right away.
There are a number of ways to find a doctor for a second opinion :
- Your doctor may refer you to one or more specialists. At cancer centers, several specialists often work together as a team.
- NCI's Cancer Information Service, at 1-800-4-CANCER, can tell you about nearby treatment centers. Information Specialists also can provide online assistance through LiveHelp at http://www.cancer.gov.
- A local or state medical society, a nearby hospital, or a medical school can usually provide the names of specialists in your area.
- The American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) has a list of doctors who have had training and passed exams in their specialty. You can find this list in the Official ABMS Directory of Board Certified Medical Specialists. This Directory is in most public libraries. Or you can look up doctors at http://www.abms.org. (Click on "Who's Certified.")
Preparing for treatment
The choice of treatment depends mainly on the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread. If a woman is of childbearing age, the treatment choice may also depend on whether she wants to become pregnant someday.
Your doctor can describe your treatment choices and the expected results of each. You and your doctor can work together to develop a treatment plan that meets your medical needs and personal values.
You may want to ask the doctor these questions before treatment begins:
- What is the stage of my disease ? Has the cancer spread ? If so, where ?
- What are my treatment choices ? Which do you recommend for me ? Will I have more than one kind of treatment ?
- What are the expected benefits of each kind of treatment ?
- What are the risks and possible side effects of each treatment ? What can we do to control my side effects ?
- How will treatment affect my normal activities ?
- What can I do to take care of myself during treatment ?
- How long will treatment last ?
- Will I have to stay in the hospital ? What is the treatment likely to cost ? Does my insurance cover this treatment ?
- How often should I have checkups ?
- Would a clinical trial (research study) be appropriate for me ?
Methods of treatment
Women with cervical cancer may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and chemotherapy, or a combination of all three methods.
At any stage of disease, women with cervical cancer may have treatment to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side effects of therapy, and to ease emotional and practical problems. This kind of treatment is called supportive care, symptom management, or palliative care. Information about such treatment is available on NCI's Web site and from NCI's Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER.
You may want to talk to your doctor about taking part in a clinical trial, a research study of new treatment methods. The section on "The Promise of Cancer Research" has more information about clinical trials.
Surgery treats the cancer in the cervix and the area close to the tumor.
Most women with early cervical cancer have surgery to remove the cervix and uterus (total hysterectomy). However, for very early (Stage 0) cervical cancer, a hysterectomy may not be needed. Other ways to remove the cancerous tissue include conization, cryosurgery, laser surgery, or LEEP.
Some women need a radical hysterectomy. A radical hysterectomy is surgery to remove the uterus, cervix, and part of the vagina.
With either total or radical hysterectomy, the surgeon may remove both fallopian tubes and ovaries. (This procedure is a salpingo-oophorectomy.)
The surgeon may also remove the lymph nodes near the tumor to see if they contain cancer. If cancer cells have reached the lymph nodes, it means the disease may have spread to other parts of the body.
You may want to ask the doctor these questions about surgery :
- What kind of operation will I have ? Will my ovaries be removed ?
- Do I need to have lymph nodes removed ? Will other tissues be removed ? Why ?
- How will I feel after the operation ?
- If I have pain, how will it be controlled ?
- How long will I have to stay in the hospital ?
- Will I have any lasting side effects ? If I don't have a hysterectomy, will I be able to get pregnant and have children ? Is there increased risk of miscarriage ?
- When will I be able to resume normal activities ?
- How will the surgery affect my sex life ?
2. Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. It affects cells only in the treated area.
Women have radiation therapy alone, with chemotherapy, or with chemotherapy and surgery. The doctor may suggest radiation therapy instead of surgery for the small number of women who cannot have surgery for medical reasons. Most women with cancer that extends beyond the cervix have radiation therapy and chemotherapy. For cancer that has spread to distant organs, radiation therapy alone may be used.
Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat cervical cancer. Some women receive both types:
- External radiation: The radiation comes from a large machine outside the body. The woman usually has treatment as an outpatient in a hospital or clinic. She receives external radiation 5 days a week for several weeks.
- Internal radiation (intracavitary radiation): Thin tubes (also called implants) containing a radioactive substance are left in the vagina for a few hours or up to 3 days. The woman may stay in the hospital during that time. To protect others from the radiation, the woman may not be able to have visitors or may have visitors for only a short period of time while the tubes are in place. Once the tubes are removed, no radioactivity is left in her body. Internal radiation may be repeated two or more times over several weeks.
You may want to ask the doctor these questions before having radiation therapy :
- What is the goal of this treatment ?
- How will the radiation be given ?
- Will I need to stay in the hospital ? If so, for how long ?
- When will the treatments begin ? When will they end ?
- How will I feel during therapy? Are there side effects ?
- How will we know if the radiation therapy is working ?
- Will I be able to continue my normal activities during treatment ?
- How will radiation therapy affect my sex life ?
- Will I be able to get pregnant and have children after my treatment is over ?
3. Chemotherapy
Chemptherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. It is called systemic therapy because the drugs enter the bloodstream and can affect cells all over the body. For treatment of cervical cancer, chemotherapy is generally combined with radiation therapy. For cancer that has spread to distant organs, chemotherapy alone may be used.
Anticancer drugs for cervical cancer are usually given through a vein. Women usually receive treatment in an outpatient part of the hospital, at the doctor's office, or at home. Rarely, a woman needs to stay in the hospital during treatment.
You may want to ask the doctor these questions before having chemotherapy:
- Why do I need this treatment ?
- Which drug or drugs will I have ?
- How do the drugs work ?
- What are the expected benefits of the treatment ?
- What are the risks and possible side effects of treatment ? What can we do about them ?
- When will treatment start ? When will it end ?
- How will treatment affect my normal activities ?
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